Viruses Infecting Reptiles
God's word on the 3 world war and how it ends... I am the dragon and my children are those who obey God’s commands and have the truth that Jesus taught.
Revelation 12:7-17 International Children’s Bible (ICB)
7 Then there was a war in heaven. Michael[a] and his angels fought against the dragon. The dragon and his angels fought back. 8 But the dragon was not strong enough. He and his angels lost their place in heaven. 9 He was thrown down out of heaven. (The giant dragon is that old snake called the devil or Satan. He leads the whole world the wrong way.) The dragon with his angels was thrown down to the earth.
10 Then I heard a loud voice in heaven say:
“The salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God
and the authority of his Christ have now come.
They have come because the accuser of our brothers has been thrown out.
He accused our brothers day and night before our God.
11 And our brothers defeated him
by the blood of the Lamb’s death
and by the truth they preached.
They did not love their lives so much
that they were afraid of death.
12 So be happy, you heavens
and all who live there!
But it will be terrible for the earth and the sea,
because the devil has come down to you!
He is filled with anger.
He knows that he does not have much time.”
13 The dragon saw that he had been thrown down to the earth. So he hunted down the woman who had given birth to the son. 14 But the woman was given the two wings of a great eagle. Then she could fly to the place that was prepared for her in the desert. There she would be taken care of for three and a half years. There she would be away from the snake. 15 Then the snake poured water out of its mouth like a river. He poured the water toward the woman, so that the flood would carry her away. 16 But the earth helped her. The earth opened its mouth and swallowed the river that came from the mouth of the dragon. 17 Then the dragon was very angry at the woman. He went off to make war against all her other children. Her children are those who obey God’s commands and have the truth that Jesus taught.
Footnotes:
12:7 Michael The archangel—leader among God’s angels or messengers (Jude 9).
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3230843/
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Revelation 12:7-17 International Children’s Bible (ICB)
7 Then there was a war in heaven. Michael[a] and his angels fought against the dragon. The dragon and his angels fought back. 8 But the dragon was not strong enough. He and his angels lost their place in heaven. 9 He was thrown down out of heaven. (The giant dragon is that old snake called the devil or Satan. He leads the whole world the wrong way.) The dragon with his angels was thrown down to the earth.
10 Then I heard a loud voice in heaven say:
“The salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God
and the authority of his Christ have now come.
They have come because the accuser of our brothers has been thrown out.
He accused our brothers day and night before our God.
11 And our brothers defeated him
by the blood of the Lamb’s death
and by the truth they preached.
They did not love their lives so much
that they were afraid of death.
12 So be happy, you heavens
and all who live there!
But it will be terrible for the earth and the sea,
because the devil has come down to you!
He is filled with anger.
He knows that he does not have much time.”
13 The dragon saw that he had been thrown down to the earth. So he hunted down the woman who had given birth to the son. 14 But the woman was given the two wings of a great eagle. Then she could fly to the place that was prepared for her in the desert. There she would be taken care of for three and a half years. There she would be away from the snake. 15 Then the snake poured water out of its mouth like a river. He poured the water toward the woman, so that the flood would carry her away. 16 But the earth helped her. The earth opened its mouth and swallowed the river that came from the mouth of the dragon. 17 Then the dragon was very angry at the woman. He went off to make war against all her other children. Her children are those who obey God’s commands and have the truth that Jesus taught.
Footnotes:
12:7 Michael The archangel—leader among God’s angels or messengers (Jude 9).
Viruses. 2011 Nov; 3(11): 2087–2126.
Published online 2011 Nov 1. doi: 10.3390/v3112087
PMCID: PMC3230843
PMID: 22163336
Viruses Infecting Reptiles
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.
1. Introduction
Reptile virology is a relatively young field that has undergone rapid development over the past few decades. A number of factors have influenced the development of interest in these viruses. Many early studies dealt with reptiles as hosts for arboviruses that also infect humans as well as other mammals and birds, such as flaviruses and togaviruses. Interest in these viruses in reptiles has increased since the emergence of West Nile Virus in the western hemisphere at the end of the 20th century. A number of studies have shown that various arboviruses can infect a number of different reptile species and that temperature affects the development of viremia in these animals. Several studies have demonstrated that some arboviruses can persist in reptiles over winter, a factor that may play a role in the epidemiology of these viruses. Other studies have focused on the role of viruses as pathogens in reptiles. In many cases, however, Koch’s postulates have not been fulfilled for viral diseases of reptiles, so that the connection between virus and disease is postulated based on clinical, pathological and histological observations. Viruses that have been shown to be important pathogens in reptiles include ranaviruses and herpesviruses in chelonians, and paramyxoviruses in snakes. Other viruses, such as reoviruses, have not or have inconsistently induced disease in transmission studies, so that their role as primary pathogens has been questioned. However, a number of these viruses do appear to play a role in the health of reptiles, and may be part of factorial disease processes influenced by the viruses themselves, other infectious agents, and environmental factors. A third factor influencing interest in reptilian viruses is their taxonomic position and evolution. Analysis of the genomes of some reptilian viruses has placed a number of these in separate genera from viruses of other vertebrates, leading to proposals for new genera and, in some cases, a better understanding of coevolution of viruses and their hosts.
The detection and study of viruses of reptiles relies on a wide range of tools, including classical virological methods such as cell culture, as well as molecular methods, including PCR and sequencing as well as metagenomics. The combination of these methods has been successfully used to increase our understanding of viruses in this group of animals, although much remains to be learned, both about the viruses themselves and about their effect on the animals they infect.
The viruses that have been most commonly detected in reptiles include herpesviruses, especially in chelonians, adenoviruses, especially in lizards and snakes, reoviruses, especially in lizards and snakes, paramyxoviruses, especially in snakes, picornaviruses in tortoises, and iridoviruses, with ranaviruses detected predominantly in chelonians and invertebrate iridoviruses detected in lizards. Of these, the herpesviruses and adenoviruses have long been detected histologically based on the inclusion bodies they cause in tissues of infected animals, herpesviruses of tortoises, picornaviruses of tortoises, reoviruses, and iridoviruses can all be isolated in cell culture, and sensitive PCRs are available for the detection of herpesviruses, adenoviruses, paramyxoviruses, and iridoviruses.
This review aims to provide an overview over the viruses detected in reptiles to date as well as some information on the diseases associated with these viruses. The taxonomic positions of the reptilian viruses relative to viruses of other vertebrates are provided if information on this is available. The study of these viruses has grown beyond the point at which a full overview over every aspect of this topic could be provided in such a review, so that specific information on some aspects of reptile virology, particularly specifics on diagnostic testing and samples as well as serological aspects of infection, are only briefly mentioned for each virus family. The viruses in the review are presented according to taxonomic position, with DNA viruses (poxviruses, iridoviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses, papillomaviruses, parvoviruses, circoviruses, and a “tornovirus”) presented first, followed by RNA viruses (retroviruses, reoviruses, rhabdoviruses, paramyxoviruses, bunyaviruses, picornaviruses, caliciviruses, flaviviruses, togaviruses).
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